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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Integrables System</span></h1>
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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="de" dir="ltr"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="de" dir="ltr"><p>Ein <b>integrables System</b> ist ein <a href="Dynamisches_System" title="Dynamisches System">dynamisches System</a>, welches eine besonders hohe strukturelle Ordnung und explizite Lösbarkeit besitzt. Integrablität bedeutet, dass das System eine tieferliegende mathematische Struktur besitzt, die seine explizite Lösung durch systematische Methoden erlaubt. Durch die Lösbarkeit des Systems erhält man insbesondere eine präzise Vorhersage des Langzeitverhaltens des Systems, was solche Systeme von chaotischen Systemen unterscheidet. Es existiert keine einheitliche formale Definition des Begriffs integrables System, der Begriff wird in verschiedenen Kontexten unterschiedlich verwendet.
</p><p>In der <a href="Klassische_Mechanik" title="Klassische Mechanik">klassischen Mechanik</a> bezeichnet man ein System als integrabel, wenn es <i>Liouville-integrabel</i> (s. u.) ist, das heißt, wenn es genügend viele <i>in Involution</i> stehende (s. u.) <a href="Erhaltungsgr%C3%B6%C3%9Fe" class="mw-redirect" title="Erhaltungsgröße">Erhaltungsgrößen</a> besitzt. Für <a href="Quantenmechanik" title="Quantenmechanik">quantenmechanische</a> Systeme existiert der Begriff der <i>Quantenintegrabilität</i>. In moderneren Ansätzen wird ein System als integrabel bezeichnet, wenn es explizit gelöst werden kann, etwa durch Methoden wie die <a href="Inverse_Streutransformation" title="Inverse Streutransformation">inverse Streutransformation</a>, <a href="Riemann-Hilbert-Problem" title="Riemann-Hilbert-Problem">Riemann-Hilbert-Analyse</a> oder <a href="Fredholm-Determinante" title="Fredholm-Determinante">determinantenbasierte</a> Verfahren. Der Fokus liegt dabei weniger auf der Existenz struktureller Kriterien wie zum Beispiel <a href="Lax-Paar" title="Lax-Paar">Lax-Paaren</a> oder Symmetrien, sondern auf tatsächlicher Lösbarkeit und Kontrolle der asymptotischen Regionen, das heißt das Verhalten in den <a href="Grenzwert_(Folge)" title="Grenzwert (Folge)">Grenzregionen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Integrable Systeme treten in zahlreichen Bereichen der <a href="Mathematik" title="Mathematik">Mathematik</a> und <a href="Physik" title="Physik">Physik</a> auf, darunter in der Theorie der nichtlinearen <a href="Partielle_Differentialgleichung" title="Partielle Differentialgleichung">partiellen Differentialgleichungen</a> (z. B. <a href="Korteweg-de-Vries-Gleichung" title="Korteweg-de-Vries-Gleichung">Korteweg-de-Vries-Gleichung</a>, <a href="Schr%C3%B6dingergleichung" title="Schrödingergleichung">nichtlineare Schrödingergleichung</a>), in der <a href="Statistische_Mechanik" title="Statistische Mechanik">statistischen Mechanik</a> (z. B. <a href="Ising-Modell" title="Ising-Modell">Ising-Modell</a>, <a href="Heisenberg-Modell" title="Heisenberg-Modell">XXZ-Modell</a>), der <a href="Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie" title="Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie">Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie</a> (z. B. <a href="Zufallsmatrix" title="Zufallsmatrix">Zufallsmatrizen</a>, integrablen Wahrscheinlichkeit, <a href="TASEP" class="mw-redirect" title="TASEP">TASEP</a>), der <a href="Darstellungstheorie" title="Darstellungstheorie">Darstellungstheorie</a>, der <a href="Algebraische_Geometrie" title="Algebraische Geometrie">algebraischen Geometrie</a> und weiter. Der Begriff der <b>Integrablen Methode</b> (IM) steht dabei für ein einheitliches methodisches Gerüst, das viele dieser scheinbar unterschiedlichen Anwendungen miteinander verbindet.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Integrables_System">Integrables System</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Klassische_Mechanik">Klassische Mechanik</h3></div>
<p>Sei ein <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>n</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2n}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/134afa8ff09fdddd24b06f289e92e3a045092bd1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.557ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2n}" loading="lazy"></span>-dimensionaler <a href="Phasenraum" title="Phasenraum">Phasenraum</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M=\mathbb {R} ^{2n}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>M</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
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<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>n</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M=\mathbb {R} ^{2n}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bbf6ef8da44bfb372652071d3d1c5773f8c0bd9f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:9.259ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M=\mathbb {R} ^{2n}}" loading="lazy"></span> mit Koordinaten <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q=(q_{1},\dots ,q_{n})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>q</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q=(q_{1},\dots ,q_{n})}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/33720dd3db45db63ac39f169008a4bff766051e3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.502ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q=(q_{1},\dots ,q_{n})}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p=(p_{1},\dots ,p_{n})}">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1a6ce56b35e9d5a01db3c277beaaf40d796d73e6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:15.956ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p=(p_{1},\dots ,p_{n})}" loading="lazy"></span> (<a href="Generalisierte_Koordinate" title="Generalisierte Koordinate">Position</a> und <a href="Generalisierter_Impuls" title="Generalisierter Impuls">Impuls</a>) und <a href="Hamilton-Funktion" title="Hamilton-Funktion">Hamilton-Funktion</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H\colon M\to \mathbb {R} }">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>H</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H\colon M\to \mathbb {R} }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a5591f612d694e0117e0f3f0dcc73e91a82510d9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:10.832ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H\colon M\to \mathbb {R} }" loading="lazy"></span> gegeben. Für zwei Phasenraumfunktionen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F(q,p)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>F</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
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<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F(q,p)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/609af6e13ccfbe6fdd404ca2838783da96d8d193.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.823ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F(q,p)}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G(q,p)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>G</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G(q,p)}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e1ee34f61c5c829a10095129e57f5c41e2b0a3c7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.909ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G(q,p)}" loading="lazy"></span> werden die <a href="Poisson-Klammer" title="Poisson-Klammer">Poisson-Klammern</a> definiert
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \{F,G\}:=\sum _{k=1}^{n}\left({\frac {\partial F}{\partial q_{k}}}{\frac {\partial G}{\partial p_{k}}}-{\frac {\partial F}{\partial p_{k}}}{\frac {\partial G}{\partial q_{k}}}\right).}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
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<mo>:=</mo>
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<mo>∑<!-- ∑ --></mo>
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<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
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<mfrac>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">∂<!-- ∂ --></mi>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">∂<!-- ∂ --></mi>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∂<!-- ∂ --></mi>
<mi>G</mi>
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<mrow>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∂<!-- ∂ --></mi>
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<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∂<!-- ∂ --></mi>
<mi>F</mi>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">∂<!-- ∂ --></mi>
<msub>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∂<!-- ∂ --></mi>
<mi>G</mi>
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<mrow>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∂<!-- ∂ --></mi>
<msub>
<mi>q</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
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<mo>)</mo>
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<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \{F,G\}:=\sum _{k=1}^{n}\left({\frac {\partial F}{\partial q_{k}}}{\frac {\partial G}{\partial p_{k}}}-{\frac {\partial F}{\partial p_{k}}}{\frac {\partial G}{\partial q_{k}}}\right).}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e926589fd668f4fe4d8d18c080489433643db046.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:39.094ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \{F,G\}:=\sum _{k=1}^{n}\left({\frac {\partial F}{\partial q_{k}}}{\frac {\partial G}{\partial p_{k}}}-{\frac {\partial F}{\partial p_{k}}}{\frac {\partial G}{\partial q_{k}}}\right).}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Die Poisson-Klammer kann hergeleitet werden, in dem man <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>F</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/545fd099af8541605f7ee55f08225526be88ce57.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.741ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F}" loading="lazy"></span> nach der Zeit ableitet und dann die <a href="Hamiltonsche_Mechanik" title="Hamiltonsche Mechanik">hamiltonschen Bewegungsgleichungen</a>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}q_{k}={\frac {\partial H}{\partial p_{k}}}\,,\quad {\frac {d}{dt}}p_{k}=-{\frac {\partial H}{\partial q_{k}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
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<mi>q</mi>
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<mo>=</mo>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">∂<!-- ∂ --></mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}q_{k}={\frac {\partial H}{\partial p_{k}}}\,,\quad {\frac {d}{dt}}p_{k}=-{\frac {\partial H}{\partial q_{k}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/332c359e74528464d7335d4d6eaa6d36a71b69a5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:30.608ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}q_{k}={\frac {\partial H}{\partial p_{k}}}\,,\quad {\frac {d}{dt}}p_{k}=-{\frac {\partial H}{\partial q_{k}}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>einfügt.
</p><p>Zwei Funktionen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>F</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/545fd099af8541605f7ee55f08225526be88ce57.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.741ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>G</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G}" loading="lazy"></span> <i>Poisson-kommutieren</i>, wenn die Poisson-Klammer verschwindet <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \{F,G\}=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mi>F</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>G</mi>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \{F,G\}=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/088faf34498919d4282bd41a081fad563cccedc8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.187ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \{F,G\}=0}" loading="lazy"></span>. Eine Funktion <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>F</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/545fd099af8541605f7ee55f08225526be88ce57.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.741ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F}" loading="lazy"></span>, die mit dem Hamiltonian <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>H</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/75a9edddcca2f782014371f75dca39d7e13a9c1b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.064ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H}" loading="lazy"></span> Poisson-kommutiert, ist eine <a href="Erhaltungsgr%C3%B6%C3%9Fe" class="mw-redirect" title="Erhaltungsgröße">Erhaltungsgröße</a>. Wenn <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \{F,G\}=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mi>F</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>G</mi>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \{F,G\}=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/088faf34498919d4282bd41a081fad563cccedc8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.187ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \{F,G\}=0}" loading="lazy"></span>, dann sagt man auch, dass <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>F</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/545fd099af8541605f7ee55f08225526be88ce57.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.741ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>G</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G}" loading="lazy"></span> <i>in Involution</i> stehen, weil die Größen, die durch diese Funktionen beschrieben werden, unabhängig voneinander sind und sich in ihrer Entwicklung nicht gegenseitig beeinflussen.
</p><p>Ein dynamisches System heißt <b>Liouville-integrierbar</b> falls es <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span> unabhängige Erhaltungsgrößen hat, die gegenseitig in Involution stehen
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \{F_{i},F_{j}\}=0,\quad i,j=1,\dots ,n.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<msub>
<mi>F</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>F</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="1em"></mspace>
<mi>i</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>j</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \{F_{i},F_{j}\}=0,\quad i,j=1,\dots ,n.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9e949d48761edd661c66bad07bfe9c972c11d557.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:29.95ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \{F_{i},F_{j}\}=0,\quad i,j=1,\dots ,n.}" loading="lazy"></span><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>Der <a href="Satz_von_Arnold-Liouville" class="mw-redirect" title="Satz von Arnold-Liouville">Satz von Liouville</a> sage:
</p>
<dl><dd><i>Sei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H=H(x,t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>H</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>H</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H=H(x,t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf4bdf58d36c90c12b719aa1ec6be45261ddf565.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.238ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H=H(x,t)}" loading="lazy"></span> eine Hamilton-Funktion auf <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2n}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2n}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47460f1a92774729807be11cf62b9178b5771b4a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.719ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2n}}" loading="lazy"></span> mit kanonischer Poisson-Klammer und seien <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{1},\dots ,I_{n}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>I</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>I</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{1},\dots ,I_{n}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/900ddceee4944ca19a2d730f7dc5b38ca0ff3b66.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.497ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{1},\dots ,I_{n}}" loading="lazy"></span> <a href="Integral_der_Bewegung" title="Integral der Bewegung">Integrale der Bewegung</a>, welche gegenseitig Poisson-kommutieren <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \{I_{i},I_{j}\}=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<msub>
<mi>I</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>I</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \{I_{i},I_{j}\}=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ec8c72a5e14e4af1b384aa58cd17b6b7158aa671.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:11.375ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \{I_{i},I_{j}\}=0}" loading="lazy"></span> für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i,j=1,\dots ,n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>i</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>j</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i,j=1,\dots ,n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b25f628c6d3f479c7093f53f3495bfac0c1d9c98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:13.628ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i,j=1,\dots ,n}" loading="lazy"></span>. Falls <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{1},\dots ,I_{n}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>I</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>I</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{1},\dots ,I_{n}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/900ddceee4944ca19a2d730f7dc5b38ca0ff3b66.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.497ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{1},\dots ,I_{n}}" loading="lazy"></span> unabhängig auf der Niveaumenge </i>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{a}=\{(x,t)\in \mathbb {R} ^{2n}\times \mathbb {R} \colon I_{i}=a,i=1,\dots ,n\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>C</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>a</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>:<!-- : --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>I</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>i</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>n</mi>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{a}=\{(x,t)\in \mathbb {R} ^{2n}\times \mathbb {R} \colon I_{i}=a,i=1,\dots ,n\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6c283ed131cd63e5bee2100f0f6fcb2575ae0a61.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:44.132ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{a}=\{(x,t)\in \mathbb {R} ^{2n}\times \mathbb {R} \colon I_{i}=a,i=1,\dots ,n\}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><i>sind, dann erhält man die Lösung der Hamilton-Gleichung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}x=\{H,x\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>d</mi>
<mrow>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mi>H</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}x=\{H,x\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f54f2167d29d4a7cb87e9e57dca02495c4b7287a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:14.072ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}x=\{H,x\}}" loading="lazy"></span> auf <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C_{a}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>C</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>a</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C_{a}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ab87abaf2947149bbc00050280796cc35e687afd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.764ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C_{a}}" loading="lazy"></span> durch Quadratur (d.h. explizite Integration).</i><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modernere_Theorien">Modernere Theorien</h3></div>
<p>Die moderne Theorie integrierbarer Systeme begann mit der 1967 erschienen Arbeit von <a href="Clifford_Gardner" title="Clifford Gardner">Clifford Gardner</a>, <a href="John_Greene_(Physiker)" title="John Greene (Physiker)">John Greene</a>, <a href="Martin_Kruskal" title="Martin Kruskal">Martin Kruskal</a> und <a href="Robert_Miura" title="Robert Miura">Robert Miura</a> (GGKM)<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, die eine neuartige Methode zur Lösung der <a href="Korteweg-de-Vries-Gleichung" title="Korteweg-de-Vries-Gleichung">Korteweg-de-Vries-Gleichung</a> (KdV)
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q_{t}+6qq_{x}-q_{xxx}=0,\quad q_{0}(x)\to 0{\text{ wenn }}|x|\to \infty }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>q</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>t</mi>
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</msub>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>6</mn>
<mi>q</mi>
<msub>
<mi>q</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
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</msub>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>q</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
<mi>x</mi>
<mi>x</mi>
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</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="1em"></mspace>
<msub>
<mi>q</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>&nbsp;wenn&nbsp;</mtext>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q_{t}+6qq_{x}-q_{xxx}=0,\quad q_{0}(x)\to 0{\text{ wenn }}|x|\to \infty }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ed721e5370fc7d5c4877815a3be2cdb529e31045.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:48.718ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q_{t}+6qq_{x}-q_{xxx}=0,\quad q_{0}(x)\to 0{\text{ wenn }}|x|\to \infty }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>entwickelten, die <a href="Inverse_Streutransformation" title="Inverse Streutransformation">Inverse Streutransformation</a>. Diese Methode beruhte auf der Spektral- und Streutheorie des zeitabhängigen <a href="Schr%C3%B6dinger-Operator" title="Schrödinger-Operator">Schrödinger-Operators</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L(t):=-\partial _{x}^{2}+q(x,t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>L</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>:=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msubsup>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∂<!-- ∂ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L(t):=-\partial _{x}^{2}+q(x,t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9e969d92b74a62132f3fcd528ffdb84d367ca0b1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:21.115ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L(t):=-\partial _{x}^{2}+q(x,t)}" loading="lazy"></span> und ermöglichte die explizite Integration der KdV-Gleichung. Ein Jahr später formulierte <a href="Peter_Lax" title="Peter Lax">Peter Lax</a> die Gleichung um. Sei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B(t):=4\partial _{x}^{3}-6q\partial _{x}-3q_{x}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>B</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>:=</mo>
<mn>4</mn>
<msubsup>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∂<!-- ∂ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>6</mn>
<mi>q</mi>
<msub>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∂<!-- ∂ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>3</mn>
<msub>
<mi>q</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B(t):=4\partial _{x}^{3}-6q\partial _{x}-3q_{x}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/23055dfef0d30d95093dd07d5d58351370450e76.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:25.419ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B(t):=4\partial _{x}^{3}-6q\partial _{x}-3q_{x}}" loading="lazy"></span>, dann lässt sich die KdV-Gleichung als <a href="Lax-Gleichung" class="mw-redirect" title="Lax-Gleichung">Lax-Gleichung</a>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \partial _{t}L=[B,L]=BL-LB}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∂<!-- ∂ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi>L</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">[</mo>
<mi>B</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>L</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">]</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>B</mi>
<mi>L</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>L</mi>
<mi>B</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \partial _{t}L=[B,L]=BL-LB}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1060b0771db4f3c1af87b8077710206bcfe7a782.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:25.049ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \partial _{t}L=[B,L]=BL-LB}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>formulieren. Der Operator <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>B</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}" loading="lazy"></span> wurde so gewählt, dass das <a href="Spektrum_(Operatortheorie)" title="Spektrum (Operatortheorie)">Spektrum</a> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>L</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/103168b86f781fe6e9a4a87b8ea1cebe0ad4ede8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.583ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L}" loading="lazy"></span> über die Zeit konstant bleibt, das heißt es gibt eine Familie unitärer Transformationen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (U(t))_{t}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>U</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (U(t))_{t}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c8cd65b095e50f5f47ee0e4c9be90e8e59efabd4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.067ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (U(t))_{t}}" loading="lazy"></span> so dass <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L(t)=U^{-1}(t)L(0)U(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>L</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>U</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mi>L</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mi>U</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L(t)=U^{-1}(t)L(0)U(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c2d4297d13503a58235ef361e5879fd1d949584e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:23.139ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L(t)=U^{-1}(t)L(0)U(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> und daraus folgt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \operatorname {Spec} (L(t))=\operatorname {Spec} (L(0))}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Spec</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>L</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>Spec</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>L</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \operatorname {Spec} (L(t))=\operatorname {Spec} (L(0))}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4d29b484a72fbc612d8aeff63f8639975b4239dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:24.803ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \operatorname {Spec} (L(t))=\operatorname {Spec} (L(0))}" loading="lazy"></span>. Man nennt dies <i>isospektrale Deformation</i> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>L</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8db1ab667b7327d5df3aa6f10c853cf3557acf87.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.232ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L(t)}" loading="lazy"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die konstanten Eigenwerte sind dabei Erhaltungsgrößen des Systems, so dass die KdV-Gleichung Liouville-integrabel wird. Die Operatoren <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>L</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/103168b86f781fe6e9a4a87b8ea1cebe0ad4ede8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.583ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>B</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}" loading="lazy"></span> nennt man <a href="Lax-Paar" title="Lax-Paar">Lax-Paare</a> und für andere partielle Differentialgleichungen wurden später weitere Lax-Paare gefunden, darunter die nichtlineare <a href="Schr%C3%B6dinger-Gleichung" class="mw-redirect" title="Schrödinger-Gleichung">Schrödinger-Gleichung</a> und die <a href="Sinus-Gordon-Gleichung" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinus-Gordon-Gleichung">Sinus-Gordon-Gleichung</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>1974 wurde ein Verfahren - die <a href="Sacharow-Schabat-Konstruktion" title="Sacharow-Schabat-Konstruktion">Sacharow-Schabat-Konstruktion</a> - eingeführt, mit dem man Lax-Paare konstruieren kann, die ein integrables System erzeugen.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abstrakte_Definition">Abstrakte Definition</h4></div>
<p>Die nachfolgende Definition stammt von <a href="Percy_Deift" title="Percy Deift">Percy Deift</a> und verzichtet dabei auf die Begriffe Liouville-Integrabilität und Erhaltungsgrößen:<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><i>Ein dynamisches System <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta =\eta (a,b,\dots )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>η<!-- η --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>η<!-- η --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>b</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta =\eta (a,b,\dots )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4b01557fbb9dbceaed4e432e5623fdacec0a2d9c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.265ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta =\eta (a,b,\dots )}" loading="lazy"></span> gilt als <b>integrables System</b>, wenn </i>
<ul><li><i>es eine bijektive <a href="Substitution_(Mathematik)" title="Substitution (Mathematik)">Substitution</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta \to \zeta :=\varphi (\eta )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>η<!-- η --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
<mi>ζ<!-- ζ --></mi>
<mo>:=</mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>η<!-- η --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta \to \zeta :=\varphi (\eta )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bbe42f5a4498ed112b99fc969b95ded927a20455.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.123ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta \to \zeta :=\varphi (\eta )}" loading="lazy"></span> gibt, sodass durch die Transformation <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta (a,b,\dots )=\varphi (\eta (a,b,\dots ))}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>η<!-- η --></mi>
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</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta (a,b,\dots )=\varphi (\eta (a,b,\dots ))}</annotation>
</semantics>
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</semantics>
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<mi>b</mi>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a,b\dots }</annotation>
</semantics>
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<li><i>die Abbildungen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T:\eta \mapsto \zeta :=\varphi (\eta )}">
<semantics>
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<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<msup>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta (a,b\dots )=\varphi ^{-1}(\zeta (a,b,\dots ))}</annotation>
</semantics>
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<semantics>
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<mi>b</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a,b,\dots }</annotation>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Integrabilität_vs._Nicht-Integrabilität"><span id="Integrabilit.C3.A4t_vs._Nicht-Integrabilit.C3.A4t"></span>Integrabilität vs. Nicht-Integrabilität</h3></div>
<p>Integrabilität bezeichnet ganz allgemein die Eigenschaft eines Systems, dessen Dynamik durch strukturierte Methoden explizit beschrieben werden kann, dies muss auch nicht immer in einer geschlossenen Lösungsform sein. In diesem Sinne sind integrable Systeme „lösbar“, weil man ihr Verhalten langfristig genau analysieren kann. Nicht-integrable Systeme sind hingegen durch Eigenschaften wie chaotisches Verhalten, starke abhängig von Anfangsbedingungen, dem Fehlen genügender Erhaltungsgrößen oder ganz allgemein dem Fehlen der Methoden, die mit integrablen Systemen verbunden sind, charakterisiert.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literatur">Literatur</h2></div>
<ul><li>Olivier Babelon, Denis Bernard und Michel Talon: <cite style="font-style:italic">Introduction to Classical Integrable Systems</cite>. Hrsg.: Cambridge University Press. Vereinigtes Königreich 2003.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.au=Olivier+Babelon%2C+Denis+Bernard+und+Michel+Talon&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Classical+Integrable+Systems&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Vereinigtes+K%C3%B6nigreich" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></li>
<li>Ana Retore: <cite style="font-style:italic">Introduction to classical and quantum integrability</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical</cite>. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>55</span>, 2022, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1751-8121%2Fac5a8e">10.1088/1751-8121/ac5a8e</a></span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.atitle=Introduction+to+classical+and+quantum+integrability&amp;rft.au=Ana+Retore&amp;rft.btitle=Journal+of+Physics+A%3A+Mathematical+and+Theoretical&amp;rft.date=2022&amp;rft.doi=10.1088%2F1751-8121%2Fac5a8e&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.volume=55" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></li>
<li>Alain Goriely: <cite style="font-style:italic">Integrability and Nonintegrability of Dynamical Systems</cite>. Hrsg.: World Scientific. Singapur 2001.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.au=Alain+Goriely&amp;rft.btitle=Integrability+and+Nonintegrability+of+Dynamical+Systems&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Singapur" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></li>
<li><a href="Wladimir_Jewgenjewitsch_Sacharow" title="Wladimir Jewgenjewitsch Sacharow">Wladimir Jewgenjewitsch Sacharow</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">What Is Integrability?</cite> Hrsg.: Springer (=&nbsp;<cite style="font-style:italic">Springer Series in Nonlinear Dynamics</cite>). Berlin, Heidelberg 1991, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-88703-1">10.1007/978-3-642-88703-1</a></span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.au=Wladimir+Jewgenjewitsch+Sacharow&amp;rft.btitle=What+Is+Integrability%3F&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.doi=10.1007%2F978-3-642-88703-1&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&amp;rft.series=Springer+Series+in+Nonlinear+Dynamics" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einzelnachweise">Einzelnachweise</h2></div>
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Percy_Deift" title="Percy Deift">Percy Deift</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">Fifty Years of KdV: An Integrable System</cite>. 2019, <a href="ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arxiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1902.10267">1902.10267&nbsp;[abs]</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.au=Percy+Deift&amp;rft.btitle=Fifty+Years+of+KdV%3A+An+Integrable+System&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.genre=book" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Percy_Deift" title="Percy Deift">Percy Deift</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">Fifty Years of KdV: An Integrable System</cite>. 2019, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>5–6</span>, <a href="ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arxiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1902.10267">1902.10267&nbsp;[abs]</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.au=Percy+Deift&amp;rft.btitle=Fifty+Years+of+KdV%3A+An+Integrable+System&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=5-6" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Olivier Babelon, <a href="Denis_Bernard" title="Denis Bernard">Denis Bernard</a> und Michel Talon: <cite style="font-style:italic">Introduction to Classical Integrable Systems</cite>. Hrsg.: Cambridge University Press. Vereinigtes Königreich 2003, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>5–6</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.au=Olivier+Babelon%2C+Denis+Bernard+und+Michel+Talon&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Classical+Integrable+Systems&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=5-6&amp;rft.place=Vereinigtes+K%C3%B6nigreich" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Alaing Goriely: <cite style="font-style:italic">Integrability and Nonintegrability of Dynamical Systems</cite>. Hrsg.: World Scientific. Singapur 2001, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>309</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.au=Alaing+Goriely&amp;rft.btitle=Integrability+and+Nonintegrability+of+Dynamical+Systems&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=309&amp;rft.place=Singapur" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Percy_Deift" title="Percy Deift">Percy Deift</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">Fifty Years of KdV: An Integrable System</cite>. 2019, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>2–3</span>, <a href="ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arxiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1902.10267">1902.10267&nbsp;[abs]</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.au=Percy+Deift&amp;rft.btitle=Fifty+Years+of+KdV%3A+An+Integrable+System&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=2-3" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">C. S. Gardner, J. M. Greene, M. D. Kruskal und R. M. Miura: <cite style="font-style:italic">Method for Solving the Korteweg-deVries Equation</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Physical Review Letter</cite>. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>19</span>, 1967, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>1095–1097</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.atitle=Method+for+Solving+the+Korteweg-deVries+Equation&amp;rft.au=C.+S.+Gardner%2C+J.+M.+Greene%2C+M.+D.+Kruskal+und+R.+M.+Miura&amp;rft.btitle=Physical+Review+Letter&amp;rft.date=1967&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=1095-1097&amp;rft.volume=19" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Peter_Lax" title="Peter Lax">Peter Lax</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">Integrals of nonlinear equations of evolution and solitary waves</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Comm. Pure Appl. Math.</cite> <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>21</span>, 1968, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>6</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002/cpa.3160210503">10.1002/cpa.3160210503</a></span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.atitle=Integrals+of+nonlinear+equations+of+evolution+and+solitary+waves&amp;rft.au=Peter+Lax&amp;rft.btitle=Comm.+Pure+Appl.+Math.&amp;rft.date=1968&amp;rft.doi=10.1002%2Fcpa.3160210503&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=6&amp;rft.volume=21" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Alain Goriely: <cite style="font-style:italic">Integrability and Nonintegrability of Dynamical Systems</cite>. Hrsg.: World Scientific. Singapur 2001, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>309</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.au=Alain+Goriely&amp;rft.btitle=Integrability+and+Nonintegrability+of+Dynamical+Systems&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=309&amp;rft.place=Singapur" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Percy_Deift" title="Percy Deift">Percy Deift</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">Fifty Years of KdV: An Integrable System</cite>. 2019, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>3</span>, <a href="ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arxiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1902.10267">1902.10267&nbsp;[abs]</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.au=Percy+Deift&amp;rft.btitle=Fifty+Years+of+KdV%3A+An+Integrable+System&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=3" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Percy_Deift" title="Percy Deift">Percy Deift</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">Fifty Years of KdV: An Integrable System</cite>. 2019, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>9</span>, <a href="ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arxiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1902.10267">1902.10267&nbsp;[abs]</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.au=Percy+Deift&amp;rft.btitle=Fifty+Years+of+KdV%3A+An+Integrable+System&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=9" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Wladimir_Jewgenjewitsch_Sacharow" title="Wladimir Jewgenjewitsch Sacharow">Wladimir Jewgenjewitsch Sacharow</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">What Is Integrability?</cite> Hrsg.: Springer (=&nbsp;<cite style="font-style:italic">Springer Series in Nonlinear Dynamics</cite>). Berlin, Heidelberg 1991, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-88703-1">10.1007/978-3-642-88703-1</a></span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.au=Wladimir+Jewgenjewitsch+Sacharow&amp;rft.btitle=What+Is+Integrability%3F&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.doi=10.1007%2F978-3-642-88703-1&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&amp;rft.series=Springer+Series+in+Nonlinear+Dynamics" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Percy_Deift" title="Percy Deift">Percy Deift</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">Fifty Years of KdV: An Integrable System</cite>. 2019, <a href="ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arxiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1902.10267">1902.10267&nbsp;[abs]</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Integrables+System&amp;rft.au=Percy+Deift&amp;rft.btitle=Fifty+Years+of+KdV%3A+An+Integrable+System&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.genre=book" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
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